Classical Rhetoric
Rhetoric, the art of effective communication, dates to ancient Greece. Rhetoric grew out of the need for people to represent themselves in a court of law. The narrative handed down is that Corax of Syracuse started the first schools to teach the principles of rhetoric to help people “argue” over land. What Corax started has made a very broad impact on Western thought and the basic premises of writing and communication still in use today.
The fundamental tenets of rhetoric were codified by Aristotle, and contemporary Western educational models are still based, in large part, on his work. Over the years, two closely related definitions of rhetoric have emerged. The first definition holds as follows:
Rhetoric refers to the specific features of texts, written or spoken, that cause them to be meaningful, purposeful, and effective for readers or listeners.
This definition emphasizes the text as an object of analysis. It dictates that the rhetoric of a text consists of its diction (word choice), types of sentences, and use of figurative language such as metaphors. The idea is that paying close attention to words and sentences is helpful and important in crafting a text that becomes effective. Inherent in this definition are two problems, both of which constrain rhetoric’s usefulness.
The first problem with defining rhetoric solely in terms of textual features is that it often leads to the mistaken interpretation that rhetoric is only about style (the words on the page and the way they are put together). If rhetoric is merely a style of communicating, then it can be turned on and off—that is, a writer can use rhetoric or not use rhetoric, as they prefer. Perhaps you can see how this definition could lead to a theory such as the “windowpane” model noted above: if you ascribe to the windowpane theory of professional and public writing (PPW), then good professional and technical writing should not be rhetorical. As noted in the examples above, professional communication requires rhetorical choices.
A second problem is that this definition eliminates any ethical or philosophical dimension from rhetorical activity. As you know, words can be used to damage or hurt a person or group of people. Discussing when and where communication works to marginalize, discredit, or vilify a person or group is vital to any discussion of communication, including PPW.
This ethical dimension of communication is encompassed by another, complementary definition of rhetoric. In a more complete definition:
Rhetoric refers to the work of finding and analyzing all the choices that a writer, speaker, reader, or listener might make in a situation so that the text becomes meaningful, purposeful, and effective for readers or listeners.
Or, if you are the writer:
Rhetoric is the ability to discover and analyze all the possible options involving language and the ability to choose from those options the most effective means of creating a text that is meaningful, purposeful, and effective for readers or listeners in each situation at a given time.
This definition is a paraphrase of one offered by Aristotle in the first systematic textbook on the subject, The Art of Rhetoric, written in the fourth century B.C.E. It incorporates not just the textual features of communication (as in the first definition), but also the work of analyzing the reasons why you’re writing (purpose) and who you’re writing to (audience). The ideas of purpose and audience, or what is in theoretical language known as the rhetorical situation, is the main reason why rhetoric matters to writing and communicating in the workplace.
Although much has changed in the subsequent centuries, one thing has not—the need to be able to communicate effectively. Unfortunately, today “rhetoric” is a term often used in the pejorative sense for persuasive or manipulative political commentary. But if we go back to the original meanings and definitions of rhetoric, applying rhetorical principles in communication can increase under- standing between people and foster development of knowledge and reason. In this way, rhetoric becomes a useful concept for learning how to construct and deliver effective communication.
